Stratigraphy Earths Geological, Archaeological Layers

Stratigraphy is a term used by archaeologists and geoarchaeologists to refer to the natural and cultural soil layers that make up an archaeological deposit. The concept first arose as a scientific inquiry in 19th-century geologist  Charles Lyells Law of Superposition, which states that because of natural forces, soils found deeply buried will have been laid down earlier—and therefore will be older—than the soils found on top of them. Geologists and archaeologists alike have noted that the earth is made up of layers of rock and soil that were created by natural occurrences—the deaths of animals and climatic events such as floods, glaciers, and volcanic eruptions—and by cultural ones such as midden (trash) deposits and building events. Archaeologists map the cultural and natural layers that they see in a site to better understand the processes that created the site and the changes that occurred over time. Early Proponents Modern principles of stratigraphic analysis were worked out by several geologists including Georges Cuvier and Lyell in the 18th and 19th centuries. The amateur geologist William Strata Smith  (1769-1839) was one of the earliest practitioners of stratigraphy in geology. In the 1790s he noticed that layers of fossil-bearing stone seen in road cuts and quarries were stacked in the same way in different parts of England. Smith mapped the layers of rocks in a cut from a quarry for the Somersetshire coal canal and observed that his map could be applied over a wide band of territory. For most of his career he was cold-shouldered by most of the geologists in Britain  because he was not of the gentleman class, but by 1831 Smith widely accepted and awarded the Geological Societys first Wollaston medal. Fossils, Darwin, and Danger Smith was not much interested in paleontology because, in the 19th century, people who were interested in a past that was not laid out in the Bible were considered blasphemers and heretics. However, the presence of fossils was inescapable in the early decades of The Enlightenment. In 1840, Hugh Strickland, a geologist, and friend of Charles Darwin wrote a paper in the Proceedings of the Geological Society of London, in which he remarked that the railway cuttings were an opportunity for studying fossils. Workers who cut into the bedrock for new railway lines came face to face with fossils nearly every day; after construction was completed, the newly exposed rock face was then visible to those in railway carriages passing by. Civil engineers and land surveyors became de facto experts in the stratigraphy they were seeing, and many of the leading geologists of the day began working with those railway specialists to find and study the rock cuttings throughout Britain and North America, including Charles Lyell, Roderick Murchison, and Joseph Prestwich.   Archaeologists in the Americas Scientific archaeologists applied the theory to living soils and sediments relatively quickly, although stratigraphic excavation—that is to say, excavating and recording information about the surrounding soils at a site—was not applied consistently in archaeological excavations until around 1900. It was particularly slow to catch on in the Americas  since most archaeologists between 1875 and 1925 believed that the Americas had only been settled a few thousand years ago. There were exceptions: William Henry Holmes published several papers in the 1890s on his work for the Bureau of American Ethnology describing the potential for ancient remains, and Ernest Volk began studying the Trenton Gravels in the 1880s. Stratigraphic excavation became a standard part of all archaeological study in the 1920s. That was a result of the discoveries at the Clovis site at Blackwater Draw, the first American site that held convincing stratigraphic evidence that humans and extinct mammals coexisted.   The importance of stratigraphic excavation to archaeologists is really about change over time: the ability to recognize how artifact styles and living methods adapted and changed. See the papers by Lyman and colleagues (1998, 1999) linked below  for more information about this sea change in archaeological theory. Since then, the stratigraphic technique has been refined: In particular, much of archaeological stratigraphic analysis is centered on recognizing natural and cultural disturbances that interrupt the natural stratigraphy. Tools such as the Harris Matrix can assist in picking out the sometimes quite complicated and delicate deposits. Archaeological Excavation and Stratigraphy Two main excavation methods used in archaeology that are impacted by stratigraphy use units of arbitrary levels or using natural and cultural strata: Arbitrary levels are used when the stratigraphic levels are not identifiable, and they involve excavating block units in carefully measured horizontal levels. The excavator uses leveling tools to establish a horizontal starting point, then removes measured thicknesses (typically 2-10 centimeters) in subsequent layers. Notes and maps are taken during and at the bottom of each level, and artifacts are bagged and tagged with the name of the unit and the level from which they were removed.Stratigraphic levels require the excavator to closely monitor the stratigraphic changes as she excavates, following color, texture, and content changes to find the stratigraphic bottom of a level. Notes and maps are taken during and at the end of a level, and artifacts bagged and tagged by unit and level. Stratigraphic excavation is more time consuming than arbitrary levels, but the analysis allows the archaeologist to firmly connect the artifacts to the natural strata in which they were found. Sources Albarella U. 2016. Defining bone movement in archaeological stratigraphy: a plea for clarity. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 8(2):353-358.Lyman RL, and OBrien MJ. 1999. Americanist Stratigraphic Excavation and the Measurement of Culture Change.  Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory  6(1):55-108.Lyman RL, Wolverton S, and OBrien MJ. 1998.  Seriation, superposition, and interdigitation: A history of Americanist graphic depictions of culture change.  American Antiquity  63(2):239-261.Macleod N. 2005. Principles of stratigraphy. Encyclopedia of Geology. London: Academic Press.Stein JK, and Holliday VT. 2017. Archaeological Stratigraphy. In: Gilbert AS, editor. Encyclopedia of Geoarchaeology. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. p 33-39.Ward I, Winter S, and Dotte-Sarout E. 2016. The lost art of stratigraphy? A consideration of excavation strategies in Australian indigenous archaeology. Australian Archaeology 82(3):263-274.

Health Promotion And Disease Prevention - 1909 Words

Health Promotion Model One of the major issues within healthcare that should resonate with a registered nurse is health promotion and disease prevention. Health promotion is defined by the World Health Organization as, â€Å"the process of enabling people to increase control over, and to improve their health† (Health Promotion, 2014). An important nursing model that expounds on this concept is the health promotion model (HPM) developed by nursing theorist Nola Pender. Pender’s nursing model integrates several factors that lead an individual to attaining positive health outcomes through health-promoting behavior (Alligood, 2014). By analyzing and incorporating Pender’s HPM with case studies and clinical practice the nurse will be more successful in the utilization of nursing actions that can be directed at increasing a client’s level of health and well-being. Health Promotion Model Summary Although Pender’s HPM is simple to understand, it is complex in structure; it consists of numerous assumptions, propositions, and concepts. Summarily, an individual makes a decision based on personal factors and influences such as past experiences, biological, psychological, or sociocultural factors. These same factors also affect an individual’s ability to make health-related decisions. Additionally, an individual must also outweigh the barriers or costs of an action with the perceived benefits. One of the HPMs central concepts is perceived self-efficacy or the capability of one’s self toShow MoreRelatedHealth Promotion And Disease Prevention871 Words   |  4 PagesChronic disease is one of the leading causes of death. People get a chronic disease because of tobacco use, poor diet, lack of physical activities and host among others things. The question is why we are not taking on the initiative on improving the quality of life by at eliminating the things that causes chronic diseases. Lately, there have been numerous of debates on whether prevention or treatment saves money. Some have argued that the prevention cannot save money, but rather increases the costRead MoreHealth Promotion And Disease Prevention1000 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"Health promotion is an attempt to improve the health status of an individual or community, and is concerned with the prevention of disease, though this is not its only purpose, as health is not merely the absence of disease† ( Maben, Clark, 1995, p. 1163). Health promotion is commonly used term in health care world, and in current society the promotion of health has greater significance, especially with the rise in consumerism. 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However, the views of the past d iminish with the advent of electricity and ourRead MoreHealth Promotion Program Proposal On Lyme Disease Prevention1634 Words   |  7 Pages Health Promotion Program Proposal on Lyme disease Prevention My health promotion program will focus on Lyme disease. My state-Maryland is number one in the list of top ten states for Lyme disease in United States. According to Physicians Now (2016), Although there were fewer cases of Lyme disease reported in 2012 than in previous years, the illness is still more common in Maryland than in many other states. There were 1,113 confirmed cases and 538 suspected cases in 2012, according to the Centers

Why I Want a Wife †Introduction Free Essays

Why I Want a Wife – Introduction 2/This article was written in 1972. Does it still describe the role of most ‘wives’ today? If so, why has nothing changed? If not, how have things changed? In 1972, it was believed that a ‘good’ wife was a married woman who completed and satisfied all needs involving her housework, children and most importantly, her husband. A good wife was normally a house wife. We will write a custom essay sample on Why I Want a Wife – Introduction or any similar topic only for you Order Now Now, fast forward to 2012 forty years to the present – the general customs and expectations still stand, but many wives nowadays have lives, essentially. Back in the 70’s, most married women were housewives. Many wives stayed home to care for their housework, children, and husband. Their duties revolved around those three ideas. But as time passed, traditions have changed. Most women have jobs and hardly considered housewives. Sure, they will tend to their kids and spouse but many of them now have lives. Instead of being of the housework being a priority, the real work replaces it. Another weighing factor would be women’s rights. Instead of the husband viewed as the main bread maker, some wives have stepped up to plate with a higher salary. Back then, the male worked and the wife stayed home, therefore the male would earn the income. The last contributing factor to the change in modern day wife roles is the later marriage. People are marrying later leading to having children at an older age. By this point, the females would have had time to peak at their jobs and remain a steady pace when the child is brought into the world. Not as many sacrifices has to be made for the child oppose to giving birth at a younger age. Even though the role of wives has come a long way since the early 70’s, the general outline still remains: care for the husband and kids and to maintain the house. And though many adjustments have been made the credentials in order to become a good wife is still near, impossible to reach. Related article: â€Å"My Ideal Wife† How to cite Why I Want a Wife – Introduction, Essay examples

Kingdom of Benin Essay Example For Students

Kingdom of Benin Essay annonBenin was an influential city-state in northwest Africa generally from the15th to 17th century. It was founded by the Edo or Bini people in the 13thcentury, and by the early 14th century a royal court was in place. It wasalways ruled by a powerful king who was usually a former war leader. Thekings, however, later became a more religious figure. The kingdom has beenthough to extend throughout what is presently southern Nigeria. One of its most successful kings was Ozoula. During his reign, from about1480 to 1504, Benin established many commercial and diplomatic relations withPortugal. The kingdom participated in a lot of trade with Europe. Some ofthe goods they traded included palm oil, ivory, pepper, and textiles. Anotherindustry Benin took place in was the slave trade. Mostly POWs and women weretraded, but in the early years, men of the tribe were also given away. Gradually, the power of the kingdom decreased as the 18th and 19th centuriespassed. Eventually, in 1897, the area was annexed to British Nigeria. Whiletribesmen still led the area, the real control was in the hands of theEuropeans. One of the richest arts that originated in Africa are some of the hand castbronzes that came out of the kingdom of Benin. These became known as theBenin Bronzes. The casting of brass was strictly a royal art and anyone foundcasting brass without royal permission was faced with execution. Whenever aking or a major figure died, a beautiful commemorative head was cast out ofbronze in his honor. These heads were displayed at shrines found allthroughout the royal palace. Also found in the royal palace were eight wall-sized bronze plaques. Each plaque depicted kings, chiefs, and great warriorsin battle. They each depict a different event in Benins history. Manythings including utensils and weapons have also been found, each hand castwith brass. As you can see, the Beninian people were very gifted in this fineart and it is one of the richest parts of their culture.

The development of twentieth

Walter notes: â€Å"In the twentieth century, the music industry underwent a revolution and it brought with it new freedom and wide experimentation. Although there was an emergence of new musical styles and forms which challenged the normal and accepted rules that applied during the earlier periods.† [1] However, there are many composers who continued to work in forms and in a musical language that originated from the nineteenth century. Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The development of twentieth-century music: Schoenberg Vs. Stravinsky specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Nonetheless, modernism became increasingly outstanding and important with composers experimenting with form, tonality and orchestration. These composers are such as Rachmaninoff, Edward Elgar, Claude Debussy and post-Wagnerian composers such as Richard Strauss and Gustav Mahler. A few of the other composers such as Busoni, Schreker, Igor S travinsky and Arnold Schoenberg had already been recognized as modernists even before 1914. All of these composers offered major contributions in the development of music during the 20th century in their own exceptional ways. This paper deals with two of the most significant and vital figures in this development and the roles they played. Arnold Schoenberg and Igor Stravinsky were two of the most noteworthy composers during the twentieth century, both with different but equally notable roles to the progress of the music industry. Arnold Schoenberg, an Austrian but later became an American composer, was born on 13th September 1874 in the Leopoldstadt district, Vienna in a lower middle class Jewish family. Walter notes â€Å"Schoenberg was linked to the expressionist movement in German poetry and art and he was also a leader of the Second Viennese School.† [2] Schoenberg’s major milestone in the musical scene of the 20th century was his approach in terms of harmony and d evelopment. His approach and thoughts on music have been consciously extended by at least three generations both in the American and European traditions. In some instances, it has also been passionately reacted against such as during the rise of the Nazi party in Austria when his music was labeled as degenerate art. Schoenberg’s name was used as a personification of what turned out to be most polemical aspect of the 20th century art music, advancement in atonality. During the 1920’s, Schoenberg came up with the twelve-tone technique. This is a method of manipulating an ordered series of the twelve notes that are found in the chromatic scale which is has proved to be significant to a great extent. In addition to coming up with the term â€Å"developing variation†, he was also the first modern composer to acknowledge an approach of developing motifs without considering the idea of the supremacy of a centralized melodic idea.[3]Advertising Looking for essay on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Heinz notes â€Å"apart from him being a painter, a prominent teacher of composition as well as a significant music theorist, Schoenberg taught a number of well-known musicians such as Alban Berg, Anton Webern, Hanns Eisler, John Cage, Lou Harrison, Earl Kim and many others.†[4] Many of his practices such as openly engaging audiences to think critically and crafting the compositional method in a formal way are replicated in advanced musical structures throughout the 20th century. Schoenberg’s past life, visualizations and his views on music which was regularly polemical were crucial to a lot of the major musicologists and opponents of the 20th century era. However, at the age of 42, he found himself enlisted into the army with the instigation of World War 1. His involvement in Military service brought a crisis in his development as it disrupted his life. As a result , Schoenberg was never able to do his work without interruptions or for a long period of time, therefore leaving a lot of unfinished work and some in their initial stages but were yet to be developed. In spite of Arnold Schoenberg being a significant composer of the 20th century, I consider Igor Stravinsky to be more prominent of the two. Stravinsky is renowned as one of the pioneering, ingenious and high-profiled composers of the twentieth century music. He is originally from Russia and was born in 1882 in Lomonosov (originally named Oranienbaum) into a musical family. However he later became a citizen of France and eventually The United States. Despite Stravinsky’s father being an operatic bass player, his parents did not support him and wanted him to practice law. His personal interest however was more concentrated on the musical element and by the time his father passed away in 1902, he was already focusing lesser on his law classes and spending more of his time on his m usical studies. During his university years, he made the acquaintance of Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov who was a leading Russian composer at that time. He decided to become a composer at age 20 and therefore Rimsky-Korsakov who also became like a second father to him, took him under his private tutelage from 1902 – 1908. In 1909, his piece Feu d’artifice (Fireworks) was heard by Sergei Diaghilev, the director of the Ballets Russes in Paris during a performance in Saint Petersburg. Diaghilev was satisfactorily impressed and he therefore hired Stravinsky to carry out some orchestrations and as a result he wrote the first ballet for the theater which he named The Firebird. Afterward this was rapidly followed by Petrushka and the Rite of Spring.[5] During his career, which spanned through six decades he composed an impressive succession of works of astounding diversity. There were the vibrantly colorful Russian ballets of the early stages, the sharp wit and purity depicted in his neo-classical compositions and the prevailing spirituality seen in works such as the Symphony of Psalms. In his later works, one could also recognize the highly individual application of serialism. Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The development of twentieth-century music: Schoenberg Vs. Stravinsky specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More â€Å"Stravinsky’s career-life can be categorized into 3 stylistic periods: The first period is the Russian Period, which began with Feu d’artifice and attained reputation with the three ballets that were composed for Diaghilev.† These ballets are L’oiseau de feu, Petrushka and Le Sacre du Printemps, which was among the most legendary classical music revolution. The works of this period were largely influenced by Rimsky-Korsakov’s imaginative scoring and use of instruments and mainly employed Russian folk themes and motifs. The second period whi ch is known as the Neo-classical period began from around 1920 when he implemented a musical idiom that was comparable to that of the classical period up till 1954 when he adjusted to twelve-tone serialism. Stravinsky’s earlier masterpieces, which highlighted his re-evaluation of Mozart’s and Bach’s conventional songs, were â€Å"Pulcinella† and â€Å"The Octet†. For this style, he took up wind instruments and disposed of the large orchestras that were frequently required for ballet. The last neo-classical work was the opera, The Rake’s Progress in 1951 that was based on the designs of Hogarth. From 1954 to 1968, there was the third period which was also known as the serial period. This is when Stravinsky started using successive compositional techniques that included the twelve-tone technique that was initially invented by Arnold Schoenberg along with dodecaphony. He used the twelve-tone technique in compositions such as Memoriam Dylan Th omas, Agon and Canticum Sacrum. He also expanded his use of dodecaphony in Threni, A Sermon, a narrative and a prayer and in The Flood all founded on biblical content. Stravinsky is considered an authority in 20th century music and has had considerable influence on composers of all times in all divisions of music. â€Å"In his use of motivic development, which refers to the use of musical figures used in a composition, Stravinsky used additive motivic development where he added and subtracted notes without regard to the consequent change in meters.† [6] He was also famous for using a distinct rhythm especially in The Rite of Spring, which later influenced composer Aaron Copland to a great extent. According to Andrew J. Browne, â€Å"Stravinsky is perhaps the only composer who has raised rhythm in itself to the dignity of art.† Stravinsky’s use of neo-classicism led to a widespread use of this style by composers in the late 1920’s and 1930’s. In ad dition, he used folk material and often exposed folk themes to their most melodic summaries using techniques such inversion and diminution to contort them. In orchestration, Stravinsky’s ‘The Rite of Spring’ has been discerned as the leading orchestral achievement in the 20th century. He also wrote for unique blends of instruments set up in smaller groups. Besides, he is well known for periodically utilizing extreme arrays of instruments.[7]Advertising Looking for essay on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More As evidently observed, apart from his technical innovations in harmony and rhythm, one can detect the varying faces of his compositional technique but with a preservation of a distinct individuality, which was also very significant. Stravinsky got his inspiration from different cultures, languages and literatures and therefore the influence he had on composers during his lifetime and even after his death is still remarkable. Bibliography Copland, A Music and Imagination. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1952. Stuckenschmidt, H Schoenberg: his life, world, and work. Schirmer Books, New York, 1978. White, E Stravinsky: The Composer and His Works (Second Ed.). University of California Press, Los Angeles, 1979. E W White. Stravinsky: The Composer and His Works (Second Ed.). Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1979, p. 141 E W White, Stravinsky: The Composer and His Works (Second Ed.), Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, 1979, p. 155 E W W hite, Stravinsky: The Composer and His Works (Second Ed.), Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, 1979, p. 256 H stuckenschmindt, Schoenberg: his life, world, and work, New York, Schirmer Books, 1978, p. 15 A Copland, Music and Imagination, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1952, p. 531. W E Walter, Stravinsky: The Composer and His Works (Second Ed.), Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, 1979, p. 54. H Stuckenschmindt, Schoenberg: his life, world, and work, New York, Schirmer Books, 1978, p. 124 This essay on The development of twentieth-century music: Schoenberg Vs. Stravinsky was written and submitted by user Paityn George to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

An Exercise in Ambiguity

An Exercise in Ambiguity An Exercise in Ambiguity An Exercise in Ambiguity By Maeve Maddox I noticed this headline in the list of breaking news on the Yahoo landing page: Â  Sotomayor wins over GOP backers after smooth hearings At first I read the verb wins as the main verb and over GOP backers as a prepositional phrase. Read that way, the meaning of the headline was that Sotomayor had defeated GOP backers in some kind of competition. But I knew that couldnt be right. For one thing, Sotomayor wasnt competing against anyone in the hearings. For another, one doesnt compete against ones backers. So then I decided that what I had in front of me was the phrasal verb win over, meaning persuade, gain ones support. That made a little more sense, but as far I could recall, Sotomayor went into the hearings without any GOP backers. I clicked on the confusing headline to read the story. I found my answer in the lead: WASHINGTON – Supreme Court nominee Sonia Sotomayor won her first public pledges of support from Senate Republicans and one prominent GOP opponent, after a smooth performance at her confirmation hearings that has placed her firmly on track to become the high courts first Latina and the first Democratic-named justice in 15 years. Finally, I understood what the headline meant. Sotomayor had acquired some backers from among the Republican senators. The biggest obstacle to understanding for me was the word backers used with the phrasal verb wins over. I could see how she might win backers or win over some Republicans, but not how she could win over backers. If someone is a backer he doesnt need to be won over by the person hes already backing. Not every reader would have boggled at this particular headline as I did. Nevertheless, writers need to be aware of the possibilities for ambiguity that exist with the use of phrasal verbs. Sometimes it is better to replace a phrasal verb with a less ambiguous single verb, especially in writing intended for an audience that includes non-native English speakers. For example, we can put out the cat and put out a light; take out a girl and take out an enemy. Alternatives exist for most phrasal verbs. For example: put the cat outside extinguish a light take a girl on a date kill an enemy You may not always be able to hit on a suitable alternative, but its something to consider when revising a manuscript for clarity. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Grammar category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:What is the Difference Between "These" and "Those"?When to Form a Plural with an Apostrophe5 Keys to Better Sentence Flow

Career management in business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Career management in business - Essay Example These are the active and passive forms. The active strategies are implemented for the purpose of career management and they involve training of employees and organization of career workshops. The passive strategies, on the other hand, involve organizational practices such as performance indicators and reviews (Arnold, 1997) Although many organizations put a lot of effort in the facilitation of career management through passive activities, a few of them have incorporated both active and passive strategies into their business operations. Career management, therefore, provides an opportunity for an organization to achieve its aspirations and interest through a convergence of individuals who possess these with the business needs. The organizational leadership can provide development and direction to the individuals who seek career progression. The ever-changing global market place is always a challenge for organizations to recognize and improve. With the current trend of market dynamics, there is increasing demand for creative and effective recruitment and retention of workforce. Supportive career management practices where employee career development and satisfaction in the workplace are emphasized (Arthur, Inkson and Pringle, 1999). Organizations should seek to implement management practices in order to facilitate and encourage employees to find value in the organizations (THORNTON, 2007). A supportive career management practice ensures that the expectations of the employee are clearly set. This enables the employee identify what is expected of them in the organization throughout their career. This is also beneficial in self-evaluation where the employee can determine if they are making any impact in the organization. When an organization does not place clear expectations for employees, it makes them uncertain about the development of their careers in the organization. This in turn affects the employee output and contribution in the organization as well as the ge neral output and performance of the organization (BILIMORIA & PIDERIT, 2006). Employees are also given clear succession plans in the organization. This ensures that they do not stay in uncertainty about the future of their career in the organization. This clear communication of such plans between the organization and employees helps in the development of confidence in the organization. When employees have confidence in their employers, the quality of their input into organization improves. The employees are also sure about their career development in the organization and, therefore, may choose to stay with the organization for the rest of their careers. This is not the case with organizations, which do not plan for the career growth and development of their employees. These types of organizations have a high rate of employee turnover since the employee are uncertain of their future and career developments in the organization (GREENHAUS, CALLANAN & GODSHALK, 2010). Through the differ ent strategies for supportive career management practices, employees have the resources and time to consider both their long- and short-term goals. This self-evaluation and assessment helps the employees make reasonable career plans according to their abilities and commitment to the organization (HUNTER, 2006). With the time and resources to make these considerations, the employees are able to make accurate and honest assessments of themselves. The set long- and short-t

Referee Report for investment class Research Paper

Referee Report for investment class - Research Paper Example I have stated in the comments below are some other issue I would like the author to address. Basing on my analysis, I cannot recommend this paper until it undergoes major revisions by the author to address its shortcomings. I believe with major revisions the paper can make enough a contribution to warrant its publication in the Journal of Banking and Finance. I thank you for the opportunity to review this paper for the Journal and I am always happy to provide referee support. Please feel free to contact me if you have any questions or need further clarification Sincerely A Comment on Enduring Effects of Demography on Retirement Planning Background Literature and Hypothesis Development The author has made some good efforts to establish the rising effects of demography as attributed to the entry of the baby-boom. But while I appreciate the work I would like to raise concerns after careful scrutiny to give you the totality of your presentation. In the opening paragraph, the author fails to point out the great impact demography has on stock prices. The author should have pointed out the standing issues of demography in quantitative terms in determining how important demographic factors are in relation to other factors that influence assets price. To flow the paper the author should have added the supporting factors in table 1 and 2 to make a good case. In the same paragraph the author needs to state the reasons as to why demography attracts a lot of attention in the financial press and what the link is between the age structure of the population, the asset price and the demand for the asset. Data and variables The author’s analysis conducted independently was one, to outline the various demographic effects where the variables- financial and macroeconomics- were still linked to stock returns and two, it was meant to look at how are the financial and macroeconomics indicators varying stock returns as compared to the various demographics. I identified some impo rtant variables such as retirement age that was left out in the research and this could lead to wrong projections when stating the effects and size of demographics been investigated. The author aside from retirement age could also focus on other factors such as the number of stock market and the series of effect on multivariable regression on equity prices. In spite of the standard pinpoints and careful specification in regression, some constraints of the scrutiny remain. I did not see the selection criteria of the variables which the author mentions in this section. What signify the facet of the economy that happen to be vital and makes the stock market move thus influence the demographic variables which in return affects stock returns. I find that the author has a dwarf measurement on table 3 and this data could mislead the public on retirement performance if used as a source. The short measurement is about the horizons used to determine an investment choice that yields the best r eturns as drawn in table three. The author needs to explain the source of primary data used in the table to clearly differentiate between corporate bonds and government bonds. Demography and Asset Valuation I find the analysis of the impact of demographics and microeconomics and financial factors on

The Musical Talents of Alexander Scriabin Assignment

The Musical Talents of Alexander Scriabin - Assignment Example It is important to note that the combination that brought the legato notes and staccato notes created the new performance in the Prelude Op. The notes make the tonal variation and rhythmic balances different from the Old Guard. Prelude OP. 11 is one of the admired pieces that many other composers have thought of performing because of the great composition that combined various components in music. Scriabin composition borrows its attributes from Beethoven and Mozart. Mozart and Beethoven projected short slurs with the rare crossing of lines (Chang 20). It is notable that Scriabin prolonged the slurs and crossed the lines to come up with a combination that was perfect. Critics have attributed the performance to Scriabin accident that led him to use the left hand more than the right hand (Damare 77). The notes played in the concerto are quite high and are unique because no composer or pianist had played such notes especially when using the left hand. The sterling tempo in the concerto Prelude 11 performance stunned many artists because it did not only increase its tempo towards the climax, but also the arrangement of note that created the effects. Critics observed that the tempo of the music often fluctuated but surprisingly remained stable without creating any disorder (Damare 79). The turbulent sound that streams due to the high notes played in the concerto did attract many viewers during Scriabin’s performances. Scriabin’s songs emulated Russian folk tunes, which had asymmetrical rhythms. The Preludes took the 5/8 motivic structures. Critics have observed that Scriabin concerto resembled the songs of Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Igor Stravinsky, and Modest Mussorgsky (Chang 23). It is important to note that Scriabin did not perform his tunes the traditional way but incorporated the new ideas to sing notes that were higher than the traditional notes played on the piano. Scriabin used the piano to play his notes; although piano was not new to Scriabin or his audience, the concert music that he played had new notes which demonstrated a new style of performance. The Prelude OP. 11 comprises of new notes that his predecessors had not played. Scriabin’s childhood was very instrumental to his skills as a composer and a pianist. Born of a mother who was a pianist (though she died when he was one year old), Scriabin took piano lessons with Nikolai Zverev.  

The influence of politics on economics

The influence of politics on economics Political Economy is a term that preceded that science that we fondly call Economics. The term, as its name implied, originated because of the belief that the economy and politics could not be separated from each other. As time went by, it was evident that the both sciences were separated; economics and politics both were sciences in their own rights. In the recent past, there have been increases in the research of the influence of politics on economics. Such research though old, appears to be ageless as the findings are quite applicable to modern age as much as to the earlier era. The difference in the modern findings lies mainly with the methods employed, and many critics have viewed the outcome as being too broad as researchers try to embrace a large amount of variables that may have affected the final conclusions one way or another. The fact that politics has a great influence on economics can be demonstrated by the example of inflation. If there is inflation in a country, then one of the procedures that could be used is cutting the budget deficit of a country. The National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER)  [1]  has recognised that pure economics alone is unable to explain complex phenomena such as different degrees of economic development, quality and types of economic policies, income distribution, and quality of government organization such as corruption, protection of property right, among other things. Professor Alesina believed that political institutions are important determinants of economic outcomes. In turn, the state of the economy affects political outcomes, both in the long run and in the short. Economic development affects the evolution of institutions and short run economic conditions affect political change and elections. This then explicitly implies that there is an intrinsic interrelation between politics and the economy. Dr.David Caploe, Chief Political Economist of EconomyWatch.com  [2]  noted that the renowned English Theorist and historian E.H. Carr described Political Economy as two things that are similar but not identical. He stressed that when talking about political economy we talk about two things that are very different but must always be examined together. Politics and Economics are intrinsically and inextricably linked, and one connot be studied or talked about without studying or talking about the other. Political Economy according to Alonzo Potter  [3]  teaches one how to increase production by teaching us to distinguish between true and false economy. Since, he explained, that there was a time that theorists thought that in order to increase wealth individuals must hoard their property. Today we understand that in order to maximize wealth we must keep it working for us; even so, the idea of productive and unproductive expenditure is still not totally clear to many practicing e conomists. William Stanley Jevons  [4]  view of Political Economy is that of a science that looks at the wealth of nations; it looks at the causes that make one nation more prosperous than another. It has as its main goal the education of society in order that poor people should be as few as possible and everybody should be well compensated for work done. Professor Jevons went on further to show the difference between Political Science and the other sciences. This he believes is because the science treats wealth itself, how it treats wealth itself, what is the best way to consume it and how to take advantage of the other sciences to get it. The main adversaries of Political Economy are those people who think that one should not concentrate on wealth alone but focus on greater thing such as virtue, generousity, and affection. Professor Jevons notably explains that most of the poverty and crimes committed have been either directly or indirectly caused by mistaken charity in the pa st which has unwittingly caused a large cross section of people to grow up careless, improvident and idle. Therefore, instead of giving out alms we should educate people, in order that they earn their own living and have a saving as well. The main focus of political economists was that of finding out or at least foreseeing with some level of certainty what contributed to the wealth of individuals that could be extended to societies; and could further even be extended to countries. That labour and economy made up the wealth of economies was not easily seen by great thinkers such as Adam Smith and others before his era. John Stuart Mill in his discourse regarded Mr David Ricardo  [5]  as one of the few thinkers who had seen the true nature of the wealth creation by nations by means of application of scientific methods. He showed that Mr Ricardo demonstrated that a country which produced a commodity at a high cost would benefit by importing such a commodity from another country which produced the same item at a lower cost, while at the same time, the former country could export another commodity to the reciprocating country at a lower cost than the other country could product it. Mr Mill agreed that this was essentially the true nature of wealth creation for nations. He lamented the fact that previous economists and some even at his time looked at wealth creation simply as the disposal of surplus goods by a country. The salient point though, was the fact that Mr. Ricardo clearly pointed out in his work The Principles of Political Economy and Taxation the exact science that measured the amounts and concepts to arrive at those amounts, as compared to the inexact and highly unscientific if not totally false ways in which theorists attempted to show the advantages of trade. Mr Ricardo proposed that it is not the difference in the absolute cost of production that drives the interchange of goods between countries but the difference in comparative costs. POLITICAL ECONOMIST HISTORICAL VIEWS Before the new theorists voiced their opinions on the causes of national wealth, the general concencus held by the society was one that modern economist hold now to be totally erroneous. The view held of the influence of consumption, is one such view that heads the table. These theorist and practical thinkers believed that in increasing consumption the wealth of nations inevitably increased as well. Most countries looked to encourage fast consumption, vast demands and rapid circulation. It became ever so clearer to the new political thinkers that consumers were always available. The governments of the day encouraged consumption, hence they frowned on saving and unproductive consumption was promoted. The national wealth was diminished by the very means by which it was expected to increase. Mill  [6]  and others came to realise that the focus on consumption was unwarranted. What the national economies needed was a boost in production at all level, since consumption needed no encouragement. The prevelance of erroneous concepts that were accepted by a great portion of society was borne out of the appearance of some semblance of evidence. When this evidence was tested and found to be wanted it is the duty of the researchers to find out what exactly does it prove. THE SCIENCE THAT IS POLITICAL ECONOMY John Stuart Mill used the analogy of building housing to explain the origin of the political economists science. He explained that the setting up of walls around a city usually follows the erection of building and not the other way around; that of walls first, then buildings. The definition of the science of Political Economy, and by extension most sciences, nearly always not preceeded but followed the creation of the science itself. Everything from the foundation was done in a less systematic way. Man by nature was a learning creature and as bits and pieces came to the forefront they were added to give structure to poorly defined models. When atempting to give a broad defininition of what science is, Dugald Stewart, according to Mr. Mill, stated that the first principles of all science belonged to the human mind. In other words, the foundational principles were shrouded in cloudiness and unclear definitions, as contrasted with the final conclusions and proof of theories. In looking at the contrasting nature between an art and a science Mill noted that while science deals with facts, art is based on precepts; science is a collections of truths, art constitutes a body of rules of conduct. Science recognises a phenomenon and tries to discover its law; art proposes an end in itself, and looks for means to affect it. Rules to make a nation rich are not a science, but they are derived from science. Vilfredo Pareto  [7]  stated that economic science would not hesitate to use philosophy, physiology or even mathematics, whereas art would hesitate before using them since they may confuse the audience that they attempt to persuade. Most moral science accepts and uses physical science, but physical science uses moral science for support. Political Economy on the other hand, uses both sciences to build its concepts. It continues where physical science leaves moral science which embraces complex phenomena. To illustrate this further, we see that which produces wealth are both the subject of Political Economy and physical sciences, as well as various laws that govern human behaviour; belonging to that of moral sciences. Political Economics is based on the foundations of all physical sciences; it also asks what phenomena of mind and human behaviour are involved in the production and distribution of wealth, all in concordance with the physical sciences. In his writings on Political Economy, J.C.L. Simonde de Sismondi noted that political economy was the name given to the science of government. The object of government is that of bringing about the ultimate happiness of men. Man by nature is a complex being, so that both moral and physical nature has to be satisfied before he could be totally satisfied. He saw the physical well-being of man as the object of political economy, and all the physical wants of man could be abtained by accumulation of wealth. The main duty of government was that of providing for its citizenry, and to discourage the repopulation of the state faster than it could provide the means of sustaining it. He added though, that wealth and population are not the only true indicators of prosperity of a state since they are only so in relation to each other. However, he believed that wealth is a blessing when it is evenly distributed; population an advantage when every man is sure of gaining an honest subsistence by hi s labour. But a country may be wretched, though some individuals in it are amassing colossal fortunes; and if its population, like that of China and India, are always superior to their means of subsistence. These writings were made in the nineteenth century so it is not surprising that many of the strategies; hence the fortunes of some of these nations would have changed. CONCLUSION Because of the application of Political Economy, many of the great economists knew like Mr. William Stanley Jevons that wealth could be increased by the nations that could produce it more easily and plentifully and each trade, town, nation must furnish what it can yield most cheaply, and other goods can be bought from the places where they can be raised more easily. Economists of today use the world as their experimental field and while social scientists have the luxury of correcting errors in labotaries economists whose predictions goes array would find themselves criticized or even ostracized by their colleagues, since inaccurate analyses can break nations.

To Dream Out Loud :: College Admissions Essays

To Dream Out Loud    is it the fear for losing freedom, or is it that the unripe fruit of idealism we begin with has finally become ripe? because it seems that the youthful starry-eyed liberalism fades. our fruit becomes rotten, stinking of uncaring, self-serving, change-fearing conservatism. precariousness becomes anathema. some keep out the fear of losing comfort. I hope I do. Lou Reed, face wrinkle-worn, still not-sings about a poor boy in New York, still refers to the Statue of Bigotry. but my father tolerantly smiles as I dream out loud as I try to believe that there is good in most as I talk about trying to make things better. he's cynically calling himself conservative as he pretends to dislike feminism and truly believes that people should want to help others. that people should not have to. that most people do not want to. my father is good, and sturdy. generous. stoic. he believes that I will gain wisdom with age   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (I will) and that I will come to think liberalism is misguided and overly hopeful.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (I hope I won't.) my father is not an artist. he is a lawyer. he still struggles to help people but he has stopped believing they'll be grateful. his fruit of idealism has become rotten. where are the Romantics? the Transcendentalists? they've just turned 19 and are going to a college I can't afford. hair, jeans, love, and hope all fade. I respect my father, and I respect Lou Reed. I respect the freedom-loving hopeful criticizing words of Bob Dylan. my father still respects those too. perhaps the hope doesn't die; perhaps it is cloaked in the fear of losing what you've already gained. precarious youthful hope feeds off the youthful need for freedom-

Ceceros on moral duty Essay

Man is endowed with reason where unlike animals, he is able to understand how things come about, and be able to interpret how causes relate to the effects. From there, the man will be able to draw conclusion and relate the current and the future appropriately. In most cases man will try to look for a truth and the necessary changes in life to adapt with the situation. It is no doubt that man has a feeling for order, politeness and moderation in life. It is because of this that moral goodness is worth all respect and by all means, we appropriately maintain it. The moral right emanate from the four sources. These sources include; Its concern with the full development of the true intelligent, its concern about the conservation of the organized society, its greatness ant power of a dignified and unbeatable spirit, or its concern with the orderliness and the moderation of all that is said and done. Clearly, one is able to observe the real truth in any given sources, and when he can detect and explain the reasons behind it then he will be able to wisely understand it The other virtues, is set to provide and maintain such things where the practical business of life relied on such that there will be conservation of the relation between man to man in the society. In that case the dignity of man will be improved to help them increase their superiority to these things. However, the orderly behavior and the self control have their sphere in the section of things where a certain amount of physical effort is required. For example, if we develop a certain amount of propriety and order to the daily activities the moral rectitude and the moral dignity will be conserved. The interest of the society should be best conserved, and kindness be shown to every person in relation to the proximity of his relationship. However, it is important to trace back into their eventual sources that nature has established among men. The first principle is found in the connection between members of the human race, and the bond of connection is reason and speech which through the process educating reasoning associate men and unite them together.

Strategic Management

Strategic Management Introduction The business environment has in the recent past been experiencing tremendous growth and development. The growth in technology and globalization has significantly impacted on the business environment through increased global activity. These developments have opened up new opportunities and means of production for the business society thus leading to success.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Strategic Management specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Nevertheless, the increased global activity as well as the technological innovations have not come singly but have rather raised new challenges for business organizations. The issues of competition, environmental management, and sustainability have emerged thus putting unprecedented pressure on the business community. With this in mind, there has been every need for business organization to identify and develop strategies so as to ensure business success and sustaina bility. The automobile industry has not been exempted whereby the levels of competition have multiplied over the years. The issues of sustainability and efficiency in the use of petroleum oil as the sole source of power have also risen thus calling for adoption of new technologies. Other issues emerging in the automobile industry include the ever rising customer demands on innovative, luxuries and distinctive products. These issues have put undue pressure on the various business organizations operating in the industry thus calling for more efficient and sustainable strategies. BMW which is a key player in the automobile industry has been demonstrating success over the last century. In this essay, key strategic issues in BMW will be reviewed and appropriate recommendations made to enhance the success and sustainability of BMW. Background information of BMW Bayerische Motoren Werke (BMW) is a German Automobile, engine and motorcycle manufacturing company which was founded back in 1917 . The company has its headquarters in Munich, Bavaria, Germany and also owns and produces the mini marquee. The massive production and success of the company has been acknowledged across the globe with a production record of 1,481,253 automobiles and 112,271 motorcycles in 2010. The strong brand name and capital potential of the company is the core elements of the company’s success and popularity across the globe. BMW primarily focuses on the premium segments of the global motorcycle and passage car market (Hill 2008; Martin 2010). The business operations of BMW are diverse with key concern on automobile and motorcycles as well as the provision of information technology services. A point worth of consideration is that BMW markets its products through various channels including company-owned showrooms, subsidiaries, independent dealers and importers. TAdvertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More he production activities of BMW are undertaken across 23 production and assembly plants in 13 countries, whereby it sells its products in over 140 countries worldwide. The massive research and development operations of the company have been of great concern whereby it has been able to adopt the recent technologies in automobile production thus leading to product and service differentiation (Hitt et al. 2009). SWOT Analysis BMW has reported commendable performance and success in the automobile industry for a couple of decades. Being the leading luxury car manufacturer across the globe, the company has been able to position itself among the consumers. The strong luxury car brands owned by BMW, Roll-Royce and Mini have enabled the company to attract and retain a wide population of customers. The competitiveness of the company has been felt across the automobile industry based on the strong brand names and market share commanded by the company. The company has also been under due pressure due to the ever increasing steel prices, competition and need for better technologies (Gerry et al. 2008). Table 1. SWOT Analysis. Strengths Weakness Strong brand image Diversified operations Strong financial performance Efficient and extensive production and distribution network Strong focus on R D Weak performance in Germany Weak turnover ratios Heavy Debt which limits growth prospectus Unfunded pension obligations Opportunities Threats Emerging markets Increasing demand for hybrid vehicles Increasing demand for dual fuel vehicles Growing motorcycles market Strategic alliance with PSA Peugeot Citroen Rising costs of raw materials ELV directive Stringent emission standards Global economic slowdown and particularly in Europe and US Foreign currency risk Increased competition in global automotive market Strengths Strong brand image The company is globally recognized due to its strong brand image. Being the leading luxury car manufacturer, BMW has been able to secure a suitable position among the 10 largest car manufacturers across the globe. The key brands of the company including BMW, Rolls-Royce and Mini have been able to adequately position the company above its competitors. These are among the three strongest premium brands in the car industry thus making the company one of the most recognized far above its competitors (Ranchhod and Gurau 2007). Diversified operations BMW is among the leading diversified companies in terms of geographical operations and market ends it serves. The operations of the company are currently in over 140 countries thus enhancing its global presence. The key geographic regions of the company including, America, Asia, Africa, Oceania and Europe have been able to facilitate the success of the company. The diversified business operations in the automobiles, financial services, motorcycles and information technology services have also yielded great success for the company (RanChhod et al 2004). Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Strategic Management specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Strong financial performance In the recent years, BMW has shown up its strong financial performance through its consistently increasing revenues. For instance, by December 2007, BMW was able to record revenues of $76,786.1 million which was an increase of 14.3% over the year 2006. The commendable financial performance of the company can be attributed to the consistence increase in all businesses of the company. Despite the impacts of the global financial down turn of 2007/2008, the company has been able to sail through the challenges thus reinforcing investors’ confidence (Martin 2010). Weaknesses Weak performance in Germany Despite that Germany is a huge market for BMW; the company has been reporting declining sales volumes since 2005 in Germany. There has been an alarming negative sales growth of motorcycles in Germany ov er the last couples of years. This phenomenon calls for alarm concerning the success and sustainability of the BMW’s Germany market (Martin 2010). Weak turnover ratios The turnover ratios of BMW are not appealing thus raising questions on its financial stability. In comparison with its competitors, BMW has weaker turnover ratios. For instance, the asset turnover ratio was at 0.7 in 2007. This is low in comparison with other companies like Honda with 1.0 and Volkswagen at 0.8. This weak turnover ratios demonstrates the inability of the company’s management to deploy assets profitability which can in this case affect the company’s top line growth (Martin 2010). Opportunities Emerging markets Emerging markets across the globe are great opportunities for the success and sustainability of BMW. The massive economic growth and development in China and India is a great avenue to steer the much needed growth in BMW. India and China are potential global markets which will definitely drive global demand. The cheap production costs and high technological know how in China and India will enhance fast growth of BMW through mass production of quality and cheap vehicles (RanChhod et al. 2004). Increasing demand for hybrid vehicles Over the recent past, the global population has demonstrated a sharp turn into the demand for hybrid electric vehicles. Influenced by the need for environmental sustainability as well as the rising petroleum fuel costs, the world population is seeking alternative vehicles. Global estimates show that over 4.5 million units of hybrid electric vehicles will be demanded by the year 2013. This can be attributed to the rising energy costs as well as increased emissions regulations. BMW is hereby keen to capitalize on the increased demand thus enhancing its success. The technological potential of the company as well as the active hybrid drive concept will enable the company to demonstrate leadership in the hybrid electric vehicle marke t (Hill 2008).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Increasing demand for dual fuel vehicles Like the demand for hybrid electric vehicles, the demand for dual fuel vehicles is in a constant increase. BMW is well placed in capitalizing on this new market due to its technological capacity as well capital potential (Hill 2008). Threats Rising raw materials prices The success and sustainability of BMW is at jeopardy due to the numerous threats surrounding its operations. The rising prices of aluminum and steel which are the primary raw materials for vehicle production is threatening the success of the company. The ever increasing raw material prices is in turn raising the production costs which limits profit margins as well as limiting affordability of the vehicles since excessive burden is passed to the customers (Martin 2010). Economic slowdown in Europe and US The global economic slowdown in 2008 has adversely affected the US and European markets. The decline in the GDP of these two giants is posing a great threat not only for BMW but the entire business sector. It is worth noting that the unhealthy economic growth of Europe and US has great impacts on the performance of BMW since demand for vehicles is significantly declining (Copper 2008). Stringent emission standards The stringent emission standards established in the automobile industry has unprecedented repercussions on the automobile industry whereby BMW is not exempted. Based on the new directives on emission standard, BMW and other automobile manufacturers will be held responsible for emission performance of the vehicles. These restrictions will not only attract financial losses but also tarnish the reputations of the company’s thus leading to loss of business (Martin 2010). Strategic options for BMW In light with the discussion and analysis on the current situation of BMW, it has been evident that the company is leading success in the automobile industry. The company is well endowed with modern technology in hybrid electric vehicles and has also abundant financial resources as well as human capital. Nevertheless, the company is facing numerous weaknesses and threats which jeopardize its future prospects. In response to these weaknesses and threats, the following strategic options should be considered (Hejiden 2006). Diversification strategy The diversification strategy is one of the most appropriate move for BMW in attaining its growth and sustainability prospects. Market diversification is very appropriate for businesses in competitive industries in the sense that it helps in spreading risks as well as enhancing growth prospects (Kaynak 2003). In order to gain success and sustainability in the automobile industry, BMW should continue with its diversification operations in new markets. Due to the concentration of the European and US markets, BMW should seek new markets. China and India are in this case potential and unexploited markets which BMW should adopt. Since most markets of Europe and America are established and movi ng to age due to the strong brand loyalty, BMW should move to new markets. In order to ensure smooth change and transition to new markets, BMW should put the market diversification strategy into action (Paley 2006). By adopting this strategy, the company will be in a position to consolidate its customer base thus increasing sales and ultimately boosting its profitability. Cost leadership the pricing strategy Despite that BMW focuses on manufacture of luxurious cars, its prices are extremely high thus making them unaffordable to many people. In order to enhance its market performance, the company should resolve to adopt the cost leadership strategy (Steinmann Schreyogg 2005). This can be attained by streamlining all operational activities by cutting down costs. This can be attained through outsourcing of production activities, use of latest technologies in production as well as retrenchment of excess personnel. By doing this, the company will be able to minimize the operational cos ts thus widening the profit margins (Bradley 2005). This will also have significant effects on pricing whereby the company will be in a position to lower prices. As a result of this approach, more customers will find the products affordable thus enhancing sales and profits. Product differentiation In this era of global competition in the automobile industry, BMW can attain success by adopting product differentiation strategy. Consumers across the globe are looking forward to see high tech products to satisfy their needs (Porter 1985). This scenario can not be exempted from the automobile industry whereby manufacturers can differentiate their products by incorporating latest technologies and innovations in automotive production (Pettigrew, Thomas and Whittington 2002). Consumers each day are looking for new and more innovation and technological features to be built in their cars (Muller Lecher 2005). This scenario puts undue pressure for BMW to come up with innovative features. This will help in differentiating its products above those of competitors thus gaining brand loyalty. Research and development is the most appropriate strategy for BMW to attain product differentiation (Palmer and Hardy 2000). It is worth noting that by considering the product differentiation strategy, BMW will be able to establish superior and appealing products (Mintzberg et al. 2005). Technology leadership Being in a competitive industry, BMW has every obligation to demonstrate efficiency and sustainability in its operations. In regard to this perspective, the company can attain success by investing massively on technology and innovations. For instance, the increasing demand for hybrid electric cars puts the company pressure to embark on new technologies (Barney and Hesterly 2009). In this case, BMW should be vigorous in research and developing new technologies to facilitate smooth transition to the new vehicle models. BMW should consider various approaches for enhancing its products by adopting the concepts of active hybrid program, intelligent energy, and innovative technologies like iDrive. By adopting these strategies, BMW will be in a position to position itself above its competitors. On the other hand, the company should also focus on innovative features on its services (Besanko et al. 2004). For instance, driver-focus services and reinforce mobile service should be researched on and fitted in the vehicles. In regards to hybrid electric vehicles, BMW should be in the forefront in ensuring technology leadership. For instance, the company should put into practice the hybrid dive concept together with other innovative strategies (Clegg et al. 2005). By so doing, BMW will be able to position itself above competitors hence enhancing success. Customer relationship management Customer relationship is an aspect of key concern in the contemporary business platform. BMW should hereby be efficient establishing effective strategies and structures for customer relatio nship management (Thomas 2007). One of the main approaches in customer relationship management is establishment of a customer care department. This will facilitate communication and interaction between the company and the clients. Customer care services will help in collecting customer feedbacks which helps in ensuring customer satisfaction (Ferrell and Hartline 2010). Market research and analysis should also be considered which will in this case help in enhancing product design to match customer taste and preferences (Timmers 2008; Sadler Craig 2003). Conclusion and Recommendations Based on the above discussion and analysis of the current situation of BMW it is evident that the company is potential of sustaining its success. The SWOT analysis of the company has placed BMW far above its competitors due to its strong financial, technological and human resource potential. In order to attain continued success and sustainability in the automobile industry, BMW should adopt the above st ated strategic options. The key strategies including technological leadership, cost leadership, pricing strategy, market diversification, product differentiation, and customer relationship management should be put in pace. By considering the above discussed strategic options, BMW will be able to realize its growth and profit maximization objectives. References Barney, J. B., and Hesterly, W S 2009, Strategic Management and Competive Advantage:  Concepts and Cases, Prentice Hall, New York. Besanko, D. et al 2004, The Economics of Strategy, John Wiley Sons, New York. Bradley, F. 2005, International Marketing Strategy, Pearson Education Ltd, New York. Clegg, S. et al 2005, Managing and Organizations, Sage, London. Copper, I. 2008, â€Å"America in recession†, Wealthy daily. Web. Ferrell, O. and Hartline, M. 2010, Marketing Strategy, South-West College Publishers, New York. Gerry, J. et al 2008, Exploring Corporate Strategy, Pearson Education, New York. Hejiden, K. 2006, Scena rio: The art of Strategic conversation. International studies of  management and Organization, Wiley Sons Press, New York. Hill, T. 2008, â€Å"The new change in automobile industry,† The Washington, vol. 2 no. 3, pp. 30-35. Hitt, M. et al 2009, Strategic Management: Competitiveness and Globalization: cases, Routledge, London. Kaynak, E. 2003, The Global Business: Four Key Marketing Strategies, Routledge, New York. Martin, T. 2010, Strategic Management, Prentice Hall, New York. Mintzberg, et al 2005, Strategic Safari-A Guided Tour through the Wilds of Strategic  Management, Free Press, New York. Muller, S Lecher, T 2005, Strategic Management, Routledge, London. Paley, N. 2006, The Manger’s Guide to Competitive Marketing Strategies, Thorogood, London. Palmer, I. and Hardy, C 2000, Thinking about Management, Sage, London. Pettigrew, T. and Whittington, T. 2002, Handbook of Strategy and Management, Sage, London. Porter, M. 1985, Competitive Advantage: Creating and S ustaining Superior Performance, Free Press, New York. Ranchhod, A. and Gurau, C. 2007, Marketing Strategies: A Contemporary Approach, Prentice Hall, London. RanChhod, A. et al 2004, Marketing Strategies: A Twenty-First Century Approach, Prentice Hall, London. Sadler, P. Craig, J. 2003, Strategic Management, Kogan Page, London. Steinmann, T. Schreyogg, T. 2005, Management, McGraw Hill, London. Thomas, H. 2007, â€Å"An analysis of the environmental and competitive dynamics of management Education,† Journal of Management Development, Vol. 26 no. 1, pp. 9-21. Timmers, P. 2008, â€Å"Creation of value chains,† Electronic Commerce, Vol. 1 no. 1, pp. 182-193.

Rules for Maintaining a Professional Relationship With Your Colleagues

Rules for Maintaining a Professional Relationship With Your Colleagues There are great companies out there- even companies that genuinely set good priorities to take care of their employees. But it is important to remember that you remain in a business relationship with your company and your boss. At the end of the day, no matter your loyalty or their friendliness, you are just a resource to a company- one of many. There are also terrible companies, who never even pretend to care about their employees’ wellbeing. Either way, it’s important to be savvy, and to learn how to conduct yourself in business transactions with your eyes open- to make sure you protect yourself.Here are a few rules of thumb to keep in mind.Don’t be buds with your boss.As tempting as it is to be your boss’s BFF (you get along like a house on fire, you have tons in common, you finish each other’s sentences!), it’s not always the best idea. First, there could be gossip from higher-ups and lower-downs if your promotion or bonus (however well-d eserved) is seen to be a favor from the boss-your-friend. By keeping your boss at a bit of a respectful arms’ length, you avoid any accusations of favoritism, inappropriate conduct, mercenary behavior, even â€Å"sleeping your way to the top.†It’s also best to keep secrets secret in a relationship with a power differential. Don’t spill your skeletons and don’t give your boss the opportunity to spill hers. Remember: you can’t un-know whatever you learn. So if you can’t separate what’s business from what’s personal, and you’re just starting out in your career, it might be best not to get in too deep until you’re sure you can handle the extra intimacy.HR is not your friend.You may think HR is a magic watchdog, protecting employees from all kinds of wrongdoing. But you’d be wrong. While they are there to manage your concerns and occasionally police wrongs, they’re mostly doing these things for the good of the company, not the employees. Remember who pays their salaries. They will always pick the needs and interests of the company over you, the little guy. With a few exceptions, you are â€Å"human capital† to be managed, according to HR. Don’t distrust them necessarily, just learn to function without thinking you need them as some kind of hall monitor for right and wrong.Keep a job offer handy.As often as possible, make sure to have a job offer in your back pocket. When you feel wanted, you work much better and much harder. And when you’re wanted by someone else, your boss looks at you as if through magic rose-colored glasses and sees your value double! Even if you have to hunt undercover (i.e. if your HR department gets really shifty when you update your resume), it’s a good idea to have an exit strategy to keep your ego up in times of stress. Keep looking, even when you already have a job.Your network is your best friend.Your professional networ k doesn’t have to be this scary thing that’s all work all the time. You can make it a truly social thing, you can even make friends. Build a group of like-minded contacts whose interests match up with yours and whose intellectual pursuits and career moves inspire you constantly to do and be better. Keep in touch with them. Do them favors and then ask for a few for yourself. Congratulate old office mates on new jobs. In short: be a good friend to your network contacts and soon they will start to feel like actual friends.Know when to quit.If you’re not happy in a job, it might be time to cut and run. Use that extra handy offer you’re keeping on hand, and use it to get to a better place for you and your career.

Nursing assessment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Nursing assessment - Essay Example Having noted all the foregoing findings, the three immediate nursing actions for Miss Jones would be: 1) To assess causative and precipitating factors, 2) to evaluate degree of excess fluids and 3) to promote mobilization/elimination of excess fluids (Doenges, Marilyn E., Moorhouse, Mary Frances, pp. 224-225. Assessing the causative and precipitating factors will involve the anticipation of cardiac failure, so it is essential to regularly monitor her breathing along with oxygen level infusion. Aside from this, the fact that a rapid infusion of IV fluids could transpire, the drip rate of the patient’s IV fluids must be checked constantly and adjusted to normal limits (Olsen, June Looby, Giangrasso, A.P., 2000). All fluid intakes must be noted as to its source and volume. Similarly, the amount of sodium and potassium intake must be observed and noted in relation to ingested food, drugs and IV infusion. The second immediate nursing intervention is: to evaluate degree of excess fluids present within the individual. This second nursing action requires constant monitoring of vital signs (Medline Plus, 2007) to observe whether a change has occurred from the last charting schedule. of any related complications that may occur. In relation to this, the present weight of Monica Jones must be compared to previous stated or admission weight since increase of weight could indicate that fluid is being retained in the body. Regular auscultation of the lungs for the presence of crackles must be done and charted during this phase of intervention to see whether the crackling sounds that were previously heard have increased or diminished. Recording the occurrence of dyspnoea is equally essential within this secondary phase of nursing intervention, to note whether hard labour breathing is continuous or takes place only when triggered by an environmental stimuli. In accordance with

Journalism and Diversity Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Journalism and Diversity - Term Paper Example This paper tells that the notion of responsible media got recognition through the Hutchins Commission on Freedom of the Press in the United States. The World Association of Press Councils realizes that the freedom of the press must be responsible to the public cause, if not the government. It announces that â€Å"it is implicit and inherent in the institution of a free press that the press exercises its powers and duties in a responsible manner† (The Law Reform Commission of Hong Kong, 2000, p. 2). Clause 12 of the Press Complaints Code deals with discrimination issue regarding reporting of news, guiding journalists not to mention the race, color, religion, sexual orientation, physical or mental illness or disability of a person unless these are required actually to complete the story. The purpose behind this clause is to secure people from biased reporting and the news publication does not harm the common public interest. Journalists need to differentiate between the lines, c rossing it only when remarks are made generally about various sections of people on a reporter’s individual capacity to write that is politically correct and a decision cannot be easily made without harming others’ right of freedom of expression (Beales, 2009). The purpose of the Code is to draw a line, remaining within which won’t create any clash between the right of the public to freedom of speech and the rights of a person not to be exposed to biased personal abuse. Regarding the right to freedom of expression, having a different opinion is the right irrespective of the matter whether it is not to others’ liking or others mind it (Beales, 2009). With the increasing trend of media taken to the court over its expression of public opinion, the responsibility of the press has increased to report daily news in a controlled way. Past examples of various news reporting can help in drawing a line between taking the freedom of publishing news, for example, the British media took restraint by not publishing the contentious Danish cartoons of the Prophet Mohammed, although they were not bound by the Code not to do so. On the same length, the sarcastic advice of a national newspaper columnist to wire the county streets to decollate cyclists created anger among the audiences but it was not the violation of the Code on the part of the columnist but because the remark was not aimed at any individual and the columnist also published an apology, the matter was amicably settled (Beales, 2009). Nevertheless, pejorative or prejudicial aggression at selected people is against the spirit of the Code. For instance, making fun at the disabled son of Katie Price, the showbiz model from Jordan became a controversial issue; the PCC was flooded with complaints from readers and also from Ms. Price and her husband, Peter Andre. The issue could only be settled when an online and in-print apology was made by the magazine besides making the donation to the char ity (Beales, 2009). The Code comes to the rescue of those individuals who are targeted and victimized but complaints made by the third party do not come under the arc of the Code until the sufferer agrees to support the complaint. Journalists are advised to apply restraint in reporting matters of public interest by the PCC. Even if no claim of discrimination is made by any individual, PCC can take action under other sections of the Code like Accuracy. For instance, the PCC issued the guidance note on asylum seekers indicating that it was wrong to assume asylum seekers as illegal. They are legal so far as they are not denied asylum.

Consider the bases for motivation for terrorism. Discuss with Essay

Consider the bases for motivation for terrorism. Discuss with reference to a range of illustrative groups and action to counter violent political radicalisation - Essay Example responding are leading to a re-evaluation of what is needed to alter the affiliations with these specific groups and the agendas that they are working to fulfill. The more that is understood and analyzed about the groups, as well as the counter – actions that are taken, the more likely that the correct responses can be taken to change the rebellion against political and social arenas. The definition of terrorism is one that has grown in current years. The explosion of terrorism as a cultural affiliation began after the World Trade Centers in 2001, which caused destruction to the United States buildings and created a strong cultural and political response from America. The particular attacks led to the new terrorism, and have led to a rise in the amount of terrorist groups that are spotted around the world, especially since the 1980s. There are several definitions and identity concepts that are affiliated with this. Terrorists are known to consist of either a fanatical religious group or one that holds a political agenda. Fanaticism, rather than political interest, is usually at the base of motivation for terrorism. However, non – traditional terrorism, which consists of political agendas that are intertwined with religion, as well as the responses from groups, is prevalent. The rules for groups have led into more destruction and chaos that is created as we ll as the belief that self – destruction is honorable when being a part of war and terrorism (Morgan, 7, 2004). There are several types of terrorism that are a part of different focus groups around the world. Each has specific agendas and initiatives that are related to politics and society, as well as the need to achieve specific goals in relation to philosophies held by the groups. The new terrorism, which has developed as a part of the 20th century, has created a different understanding and analysis of terrorist groups and their agendas. The main focus of new terrorism is one that is not

Intellectual and Cognitive Development Essay Example for Free

Intellectual and Cognitive Development Essay Intellectual and Cognitive Development Explain the sequence and rate of development Age Range 0-3 Months Babies at this age are learning a lot about their parents they are beginning to recognise the sound of their voices, especially Mums voice and smell, they may stop crying when Mums voice is heard. 3-6 Months Objects and toys become very interesting to babies at this time. Toys are explored with fingers and mouth. They are very alert. 6-9 Months Around this time babies will cry when their primary carer leaves the room but then around 8 or 9 moths learn that people and objects do not disappear but continue to exist even when they are out of sight. 1-2 Years At this time in their life they recognise routines throughout the day, babies may get excited when they see a familiar face or toy or when a bib is put on for feeding. They enjoy toys that they put things in to containers and out again, they may pull off hats and socks repeatedly. They also respond well to brothers and sisters. 2-4 Years Children begin to know what they like and play with the same games over and over again. They like pretend play games like drinking from an empty cup or dressing up in clothes of their heros. 4-7 Years This is the age they gain load of confidence and co-ordination. They start school and learn to read, write and count they also do simple maths. -12 Years By this age children are well co-ordinated, the way children think and reason is reflected in their play, they are much more organised and focused. 12-16 Years Children of this age have learnt how to solve problems and have an understanding of reasoning. 16-19 Years Decisions have to be made at this tae of ones life, if to stay in education or to find a job. If leaving your familiar environment you have to embrace new settings, rules and people.

Chinese And Americans Negotiations Style

Chinese And Americans Negotiations Style China has been becoming a key player in the world stage since last two decades for her rapid development of economy ¼Ã…’military force and so on. More and more countries regard China as an emerging market for her huge potential market and big amount of potential target customers; therefore, many countries want to operate business in China. According to the survey, America is one of the biggest business partners of China; it continues to maintain Chinas second largest trading partner, bilateral trade amounted to 102.34 billion U.S. dollars, an increase of 11.4%. Among them, Chinas exports to the U.S. $ 74,300,000,000, an increase of 6.9%,more than a quarter of accelerating 1.5 percentage points over the same period accounted for 17.5% of the total value of Chinese exports; imported 28.04 billion U.S. dollars from the United States, an increase of 25.6%, trade surplus of 46.26 billion U.S. Dollars. As trade increases, more and more American companies have chosen to develop the Chinese market. While the problem also appears, it is difficult to negotiate with the Chinese. With the 5,000 years Chinese traditional culture, many multinational firms realized that China has her own negotiation style. This issue was mentioned by Lucian Pye (1992, p.74, cited by Tian, 2007), the Chinese may be less developed in technology and industrial organization than we, but for centuries they have known few peers in the subtle art of negotiating . When measured against the effort and skill the Chinese bring to the bargaining table, American executives fall short. From the above background, we can see that if the foreign business people want to do business in China, learning Chinese negotiation style is very important. With inadequate knowledge and skills of Chinese negotiation style, it will be difficult for Americans to succeed in striking a desirable deal with Chinese partners and in developing business in China. For this aim, this essay will do a systematically analysis on how to negotiation with Chinese, particularly for the Americans. This essay aims for set out how to understand Chinese negotiation style and find out the differences of negotiation styles between Chinese and Americans, to provide useful information on how to achieve a win-win object. In this essay, the main body will be the analysis of Chinese negotiation style. Section one will introduce some fundamental information of negotiation; in section two, the Chinese culture roots will be illustrated; in section three, the comparison of negotiation style between Chinese and Americans will be indicated; in section four, the conclusion will be given which is even though there are many differences among negotiation styles, the common rules still existed among these countries. Negotiation Based on Tian (2007), there are two parts contribute to negotiation process, which are common interests and conflicting interests. However, many scholars hold divergent views from different perspectives. From the social exchange theory, it defines negotiation as a process, which focus on problem-solving communication for both parties aims for a win-win agreement (McCall and Warrington, 1984; Graham, 1986, cited by Tian, 2007). Which means it focuses on how to maximize the benefits accruing to all parties. Therefore, it can be seen there is a positive relationship between two parties without hurting each other, the conflicts will also be addressed in a way that benefits all. Specifically, social exchange theory insists on a cooperative strategy of negotiation. This implies that both parties need to collaborate with each other and unify the interests of all aim for achieve mutual benefits. The cooperative strategy is illustrated as principled negotiation. As a principled negotiation, it focuses on: separate the human from the problem; focus on benefits rather than positions; options for mutual benefits; insist on objective criteria and no tricks and posturing. In all, the negotiation parties can gain from negotiation in a decent and fair manner. (Tian, 2007). Another theory is the game theory. This theory emphasizes on a win or lose agreement. It considers negotiation as a process that both parties communicate with each other in a competitive manner. (Raiffa, 1982; Siebe, 1991, cited by Tian, 2007). It defines negotiation as each party wants to maximize its own benefits at the cost of the other side. During negotiation all the parties can fight with one another in order to maximize their own interests. Hence, we can see that game theory is based on a competitive strategy. The third theory is called cross-cultural theory. This theory focuses on a specific type of negotiation, which is the different culture background. It indicates that different cultures may lead to different negotiation styles. Based on Tian (2007), game theory and social exchange theory have few implications on negotiation process, while the most influential factor is negotiators from different culture backgrounds need to have a basic understanding of each others cultural environments and negotiation styles; this will very helpful on the success of negotiation. In this essay, we will focus on the cross-cultural negotiation style to analysis the Chinese and Americans negotiation. Cultural roots of the Chinese negotiation style Lots of scholars argued that Chinese culture can be divided into two aspects; one is traditional Chinese culture, the other one is contemporary Chinese political culture (Tian, 2007; Fang and Ghauri). Traditional Chinese culture Confucianism is one of the most influential factors on Chinese negotiation style. There are six basic Confucian values. Firstly it emphasizes on moral cultivation. It regards trust and sincerity as the most important qualities. Secondly, it thinks highly of interpersonal relationships. Guanxi is a major mechanism in the Chinese social psychology. Thirdly, Confucianism pays attention on family and group orientation. The fourth factor is the respect of the age and hierarchy. Being a Chinese who needs to show respect to the aged people; for hierarchy, people should does his duty to contribute to social harmony and stability. The fifth factor is harmony first. Confucianism highlighted the need aim for harmony in the whole society by moral conduct in all kinds of relationships. The last factor is face, Confucianism educated the people they all should have a sense of shame in their minds. Face is a fundamental moral mechanism on Chinese way of life. (Fang and Ghauri). Sun Tzus stratagems: which known as Ji or Chinese stratagems, has a huge impact on Chinese strategic business behaviour. Sun Tzus provides Chinese with various kinds of solutions when facing different situations; how to gain psychological and material advantage to achieve ones purpose. Chinese negotiator is often Sun-Tzu-like strategist, seldom wages a physical business war but rather might be keen on a psychological wrestling of wit to create a favourable situation to manipulate his/her counterpart into doing business his/her way. (Fang and Ghauri; Chas.W, 1999). The most popular part of Sun Tzus stratagems is the Thirty-six ancient Chinese stratagems. Agrarian mentalities: China has a large agrarian population fir over 4,000 years. Even during the Cultural Revolution during 1966-1976, millions of students in urban areas were sent to the countryside by Mao Zedong to let them re-educated by the peasants. Even though most of the students went back to the city they still passed their re-educated values gained from countryside to their off springs; which is completely different with western countries. Based on many scholars research, (Tian, 2007; Graham and Lam; Pye, 1992), thrift and endurance are the most outstanding characteristics of the agrarian mindset when Chinese negotiating. So the agrarian mentalities continue to have a big influence on the way of thinking of the Chinese. Political Culture Mao Zedongs bureaucratic heritage and Deng Xiaopings pragmatism are the most important political cultures in China. Mao Zedongs bureaucratic heritage: this political culture based on orthodox Marxist-Leninist ideology with three main features. Firstly, the leader of the party has the biggest power on political and personnel. Secondly, fragmented and stratified bureaucratic agencies. Different ministries, province governments, government departments and agencies bargain and compete with each other over allocation of limited resources. Bureaucrats typically have good skills of bargaining within the system. Thirdly, the art of survival in the bureaucracy was responsibility avoided. The reason for this is how the unique bureaucratic system works. In China, power means everything especially in political, therefore, everyone tried very hard to avoid mistakes so they can stay at the office as usual. Some of them do everything based on orthodox Marxist-Leninist doctrines, some shifting responsibilities onto the others. Deng Xiaopings pragmatism: Deng is the leader of China economy reform which begun with market-oriented economy reform. During the reform period, Deng had to overcome the political barriers left from the previous period. Therefore, Deng promoted a pragmatist ways of thinking within the Party leadership, which has fundamental changed the political beliefs, attitudes, values and feelings of Chinese society at larger ever since. Dengs theory emphasized on practice rather than theory means. Moreover, Deng also promoted that white or black, it is a good cat as long as it catches nice, in his view, as long as China can achieve economic development and modernization, no matter what kinds of the measures are, the measures should be taken. From the above analysis, we can say that China not only has her own traditional culture, but also has her complicated political culture. All of the factors have big impact on Chinese negotiation style. The differences between Chinese negotiation and Americans negotiation Politics influence ¼Ã… ¡Lots of scholars pointed that, China always has a huge negotiation team but with little power on decision-making. (Adair, et al, 2001; Ghauri and Fang). To be specific, this power refers to the negotiation team power. The key reason to this phenomenon is in China, it is hardly to separate business from politics. In the Chinese Communist culture, they think politics is all-pervasive while on the contrast, Americans believe that business and politics should be separated (Pye, 1992). Ghauri and Fang also pointed that, if you want to do business in China, you should pay enough attention to the Chinese government because the government is the biggest boss and Chinese enterprises are just their factories. Chinese economic structure is more centralized while Americans is more open and free. They also indicated foreign firms should be sensitive to the guiding principles of Chinas social and economic development set forth by the Chinese Communist Party and the Chines e government, and also, should make a careful study of the Chinese governments priorities and implementation policies. In the contrast, Americans regard business is business and politics is politics, which are totally different aspects in the negotiation process. Legal Influence: The Chinese consider the interpersonal relationship is more important than legal contract, which is totally different from Americans. As Pye (1992) mentioned, Chinese culture traditionally shuns legal considerations and instead stresses ethical and moralist principles, whereas Americans are thought to be highly legalistic. So historically, Chinese and western cultures has quite different views about the importance of legal process. The Chinese seem to be bound by their tradition non-legalistic practices. Tian (2007) also indicated that, the Chinese negotiators do not pay much attention to legal agreement as western people do. They focus more on interpersonal trust, friendship and guanxi. Some American businessmen argued that they learned that among Chinese it was a traditional way to seal agreements with only the oral commitment, a nod of the head, or a handshake (Pye, 1992). This Chinese negotiation style is closely related to the Confucianism that required people t o appreciate interpersonal relationships rather than laws and legal regulations; and also, it is a reflection of emphasizes on the harmony. In the contrast, Americans consider legal contract is much more persuasive than personal relationship. As Pye (1992) indicated that the majority of American negotiators are lawyers, which means that the Americans consider the contract is the most important part of negotiation. Holistic Thinking: Graham and Lam pointed that; the Chinese always consider the question from a whole picture; however, the Americans think sequentially and individualistically. Chinese negotiators always start negotiations on the general principles first and leave details to the later stages (Tian, 2007). Also, Pye (1992) pointed the Chinese seek agreement on generalities, dwelling on overall considerations, and avoiding specific details as much as possible, leaving, as they like to say concrete arrangements to later negotiations. But the Americans are more in favour of solve problems one by one. Why the Chinese like use this negotiation style? The reason can be considered consistent with Maos bureaucratic heritage; the party leaders always set the general principles and the followers had to agree upon before any details can be discussed. According to Pye (1992) and Tian (2007), some western businessmen argued this as a negotiating ploy. They argued that Chinese negotiators can take advantages of the signed general principles at the later stage of negotiations. This ploy is quite obvious when it comes to the specific details. Assume that both parties were arguing about details while at this moment, Chinese negotiators can attack the other side for not complying with the general principles signed earlier. Therefore this can be called one of the thirty-six stratagems-shut the door to catch the thief. Nevertheless, even the western businessmen consider this as a ploy it still has its advantages. Pye (1992) said that Chinese can quickly turn an agreement on principles into an agreement on goals and then insist that all discussion on concrete arrangement must foster those agree-upon goals. This measure is useful during negotiation process approved by a American: by making each agreement between us move from a more general to a more technical level, the Chinese can constantly argue that what they were insisting upon in operating procedures was logically consistent w ith all that had been agreed to before.they sure taxed out patience and always put us on the defensiveà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Information exchange (emotional aspect): the Americans pay more attention on the information exchange during negotiation process; they can accept the discussion as main method to solve the problems, even the discussion is very intensive. In contrast, the Chinese are focusing whether the counter party gives their face or not. In Chinese business culture, ones reputation and social standing rest on saving face. Assume that foreign businessmen cause the Chinese embarrassment or lose face, even unintentionally; it can be disastrous for negotiation process. Moreover, Tian (2007), Ghauri and Fang, found that face is extremely important for Chinese. They argued that if someone gives enough face to the Chinese negotiators, they will behave as a Confucian gentlemen otherwise they will return you back or set block in the negotiation process. Therefore, from this perspective we can see that compared with the Americans, the Chinese are thinking highly of face. Time issue: Americans in favour of fast meeting when negotiation, while the Chinese need much more time to build the trust with counter party before negotiation. The reason is influenced by Confucianism; Chinese only do business with someone they can trust; while trust building is a time-consuming issue. As one Chinese negotiator said they [western firms] want to come and sign the contract quickly and do not know that [if] we do not understand each otherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦there is no business relationship first, we have to know and trust each other, and then we sign the contract!(Ghauri and Fang). Patience: Compared with the Chinese, Americans are more impatient. As long as an initial agreement has been reached, the American negotiators become more than ever impatient for the consummation of a deal, for they tend to assume that the step from general agreement to detailed substantive negotiations should be a short one (Adair et al, 2001). In many cases, the impatience of the Americans is fuelled by the fact that it is not convenient, or economical, to keep their entire negotiating team in China doing nothing (Pye, 1992). For the Chinese, however, this may be the time for substantial delay. The officials who have been talking with the Americans may not have the authority to go further and must wait for the further instructions. The Chinese are also short of expert talent and thus lower officials may have to await the clearing of bottlenecks in their own hierarchies. Also, Chinese cadres often seem genuinely to feel that once there has been an agreement in principle, congratulati ons are in order, and therefore, they are in no hurry to get into the potentially troublesome haggling over details. Negotiation team: the Chinese negotiation team tends to be a large one but indecisive compared with Americans. According to Tian (2007), a western businessman pointed that it is common that lots of people from carious government departments and commissions (such like planning, economic and foreign trade commissions and the like) get involved in the negotiation team. Apart from government officials, some representatives from various departments of the Chinese company are often also invited to participate in the negotiating team, aims for avoid possible non-collaboration in the long term. The feature of the Chinese negotiation style is related to Maos bureaucratic heritage. Economic planning has been playing a key role even after reform since 1978; consequently, fragmented bureaucratic institutions have to maintain control over specific resource, which is even true at the enterprise level. As a Chinese negotiator admitted when it comes to negotiation of a lager project in which various departments are involved, if you do not ask each of these departments to come, they will probably make complaints and wont support your work very much in the futureà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦therefore, in order to coordinate our work, we asked every department to send one representative to form our negotiating team (Fang, 1999, p.208, cited by Tian, 2007). Nothing is ever final: Americans hold the view that once the contract being signed, then all the parties should show up the expected behaviour in a fixed time; aims for perform the contract in time. The Chinese seem to have less feeling for the drama of agreement and little expectation that any formalized contract will end the process of negotiations. Lots of western negotiators argued that the Chinese brought up proposals for revising what had been agreed upon, right on the heels of signing a contract. Thus although they are reportedly scrupulous in adhering to agreements, they have no inhibitions in proposing changes. What is more, the Chinese officials do not seem troubled by the thought of suddenly terminating contracts; or in other words, the Chinese do not stick to the contracts as Americans do. As mentioned above, the Americans are more legalistic, but the Chinese think the sudden change or termination of the contract do not have influence on the relationship between the weste rners while this is completely different compared with the Americans. In Americans view, once the agreement being signed, the negotiation process is over while the Chinese always tend to continue the process with continuously new questions (Pye, 1992). Chinese stratagems: The Chinese more likely to use stratagems during the negotiation process, while the Americans always being honest and humorous. Lots of scholars pointed that the Chinese in favour of using stratagems (Ji) during negotiation, which is too hard for them to identify (Tian, 2007; Fang, 2006; Miles, 2003). For example, when Ericson entered China during pre-negotiation stage, the Chinese changed negotiators suddenly, was being regarded as steal the beams and change the pillars, as mentioned above, the Chinese only doing business with the people they can trust with, without solid trust it is hardly for them to be truly honest, therefore they will use stratagems. As one negotiator admitted that they used the stratagems unconsciously but the stratagems occupied more than 10% in the negotiation process. Using stratagems, for the Chinese, is deeply influenced by the traditional Chinese culture. Risk-taking: Americans are the risk-takers compared with the Chinese. They are often prepared to put forward new and innovative ideas, suggestions. This is often done without prior approval from headquarters and represents the risk the head of delegation is prepared to take, in order to reach consensus. This trait is widely recognized and highly respected by other delegations. Compared with the Americans, the Chinese negotiators are more conservative during negotiation, without any back guarantee or the higher direction from the upper level, the Chinese negotiators tend to be very careful, speak and act cautiously (Adler et al, 1992). Price-sensitive: the Chinese are sensitive to price. Lots of foreigner negotiators said that the Chinese often keep asking for lower price during the whole negotiation process. This difference compared with Americans discussed in almost all the influential studies on Chinese negotiation styles. Such like Tian (2007), Pye (1992). This sensitivity closely related to the Chinese agrarian mentalities, which emphasized thrift. It also related to Dengs pragmatism, based on the backward reality of China, which is, the resource is very limited that the Chinese have to pay attention to the cost issue. Moreover, the Chinese would think that we have provided you with a huge market with huge potential profits; you need to give us favour back. The similarities between Chinese negotiation and Americans negotiation Protectionism: some scholars argue that the Chinese always being protective to the local industries, especially for the national key industries, such like IT, telecommunication industry. It is probably the common phenomenon in every country. Lately Huawei, the Chinese telecommunication enterprise wanted entered America but rejected by the national security department for the reason that the telecommunication is a key industry and it also consistent with the national security (Xu, 2011). From this we can see that, no matter China or America, both of them pay special attention to the key industries. Pragmatic: The Americans tend to be very practical, pragmatic ones. They do not interest in high-flown rhetoric or speeches in the negotiation process. As the Chinese, they are very practical people as well. They have the clear purpose when negotiation, which is obtain the favour and reach the win-win result. Conclusion In this essay we mainly analyzed the differences and the similarities of the negotiation style between Chinese and Americans. It is hardly to give a definite conclusion which is better than the other one. But for China, there are four points for them to amend compared with the Americans in the negotiation process in the future. Firstly, the Chinese should learn from the Americans they prefer the legal contract rather than the personal relationships. Since nowadays, China is getting more involved in the world business, facing various kinds of counter negotiation parties, different cultures around the world, the business need to base on the legal contract. It should be seen as a secure for the business. With the rapid development of economic and culture, legal, is becoming a main method to protect the rights and interests between the people, the Chinese should recognize this. Secondly, the huge but indecisive negotiation team should be improved. Due to the unique culture of China burea ucracy, the Chinese negotiation team always bigger than its actual needed. This is a waste of human resource; also, each department of the government should be separate from each other, each performs its own functions, if so, the efficiency of negotiation will be enhanced better. But to achieve this target, it will take a long time and the joint efforts of all departments. Thirdly, the Chinese always behave nothing is ever final even the contract signed already. This is a performance of bad faith; it is harmful for the Chinese to continue doing business with the foreigner partners. In other words, the root cause of this phenomenon is the indifference of Chinese legal concept. For the Americans, they should learn from the Chinese being patient when negotiating, it is easy to make loss due to the decision made when lost impatience.