Stratigraphy Earths Geological, Archaeological Layers

Stratigraphy is a term used by archaeologists and geoarchaeologists to refer to the natural and cultural soil layers that make up an archaeological deposit. The concept first arose as a scientific inquiry in 19th-century geologist  Charles Lyells Law of Superposition, which states that because of natural forces, soils found deeply buried will have been laid down earlier—and therefore will be older—than the soils found on top of them. Geologists and archaeologists alike have noted that the earth is made up of layers of rock and soil that were created by natural occurrences—the deaths of animals and climatic events such as floods, glaciers, and volcanic eruptions—and by cultural ones such as midden (trash) deposits and building events. Archaeologists map the cultural and natural layers that they see in a site to better understand the processes that created the site and the changes that occurred over time. Early Proponents Modern principles of stratigraphic analysis were worked out by several geologists including Georges Cuvier and Lyell in the 18th and 19th centuries. The amateur geologist William Strata Smith  (1769-1839) was one of the earliest practitioners of stratigraphy in geology. In the 1790s he noticed that layers of fossil-bearing stone seen in road cuts and quarries were stacked in the same way in different parts of England. Smith mapped the layers of rocks in a cut from a quarry for the Somersetshire coal canal and observed that his map could be applied over a wide band of territory. For most of his career he was cold-shouldered by most of the geologists in Britain  because he was not of the gentleman class, but by 1831 Smith widely accepted and awarded the Geological Societys first Wollaston medal. Fossils, Darwin, and Danger Smith was not much interested in paleontology because, in the 19th century, people who were interested in a past that was not laid out in the Bible were considered blasphemers and heretics. However, the presence of fossils was inescapable in the early decades of The Enlightenment. In 1840, Hugh Strickland, a geologist, and friend of Charles Darwin wrote a paper in the Proceedings of the Geological Society of London, in which he remarked that the railway cuttings were an opportunity for studying fossils. Workers who cut into the bedrock for new railway lines came face to face with fossils nearly every day; after construction was completed, the newly exposed rock face was then visible to those in railway carriages passing by. Civil engineers and land surveyors became de facto experts in the stratigraphy they were seeing, and many of the leading geologists of the day began working with those railway specialists to find and study the rock cuttings throughout Britain and North America, including Charles Lyell, Roderick Murchison, and Joseph Prestwich.   Archaeologists in the Americas Scientific archaeologists applied the theory to living soils and sediments relatively quickly, although stratigraphic excavation—that is to say, excavating and recording information about the surrounding soils at a site—was not applied consistently in archaeological excavations until around 1900. It was particularly slow to catch on in the Americas  since most archaeologists between 1875 and 1925 believed that the Americas had only been settled a few thousand years ago. There were exceptions: William Henry Holmes published several papers in the 1890s on his work for the Bureau of American Ethnology describing the potential for ancient remains, and Ernest Volk began studying the Trenton Gravels in the 1880s. Stratigraphic excavation became a standard part of all archaeological study in the 1920s. That was a result of the discoveries at the Clovis site at Blackwater Draw, the first American site that held convincing stratigraphic evidence that humans and extinct mammals coexisted.   The importance of stratigraphic excavation to archaeologists is really about change over time: the ability to recognize how artifact styles and living methods adapted and changed. See the papers by Lyman and colleagues (1998, 1999) linked below  for more information about this sea change in archaeological theory. Since then, the stratigraphic technique has been refined: In particular, much of archaeological stratigraphic analysis is centered on recognizing natural and cultural disturbances that interrupt the natural stratigraphy. Tools such as the Harris Matrix can assist in picking out the sometimes quite complicated and delicate deposits. Archaeological Excavation and Stratigraphy Two main excavation methods used in archaeology that are impacted by stratigraphy use units of arbitrary levels or using natural and cultural strata: Arbitrary levels are used when the stratigraphic levels are not identifiable, and they involve excavating block units in carefully measured horizontal levels. The excavator uses leveling tools to establish a horizontal starting point, then removes measured thicknesses (typically 2-10 centimeters) in subsequent layers. Notes and maps are taken during and at the bottom of each level, and artifacts are bagged and tagged with the name of the unit and the level from which they were removed.Stratigraphic levels require the excavator to closely monitor the stratigraphic changes as she excavates, following color, texture, and content changes to find the stratigraphic bottom of a level. Notes and maps are taken during and at the end of a level, and artifacts bagged and tagged by unit and level. Stratigraphic excavation is more time consuming than arbitrary levels, but the analysis allows the archaeologist to firmly connect the artifacts to the natural strata in which they were found. Sources Albarella U. 2016. Defining bone movement in archaeological stratigraphy: a plea for clarity. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 8(2):353-358.Lyman RL, and OBrien MJ. 1999. Americanist Stratigraphic Excavation and the Measurement of Culture Change.  Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory  6(1):55-108.Lyman RL, Wolverton S, and OBrien MJ. 1998.  Seriation, superposition, and interdigitation: A history of Americanist graphic depictions of culture change.  American Antiquity  63(2):239-261.Macleod N. 2005. Principles of stratigraphy. Encyclopedia of Geology. London: Academic Press.Stein JK, and Holliday VT. 2017. Archaeological Stratigraphy. In: Gilbert AS, editor. Encyclopedia of Geoarchaeology. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. p 33-39.Ward I, Winter S, and Dotte-Sarout E. 2016. The lost art of stratigraphy? A consideration of excavation strategies in Australian indigenous archaeology. Australian Archaeology 82(3):263-274.

Health Promotion And Disease Prevention - 1909 Words

Health Promotion Model One of the major issues within healthcare that should resonate with a registered nurse is health promotion and disease prevention. Health promotion is defined by the World Health Organization as, â€Å"the process of enabling people to increase control over, and to improve their health† (Health Promotion, 2014). An important nursing model that expounds on this concept is the health promotion model (HPM) developed by nursing theorist Nola Pender. Pender’s nursing model integrates several factors that lead an individual to attaining positive health outcomes through health-promoting behavior (Alligood, 2014). By analyzing and incorporating Pender’s HPM with case studies and clinical practice the nurse will be more successful in the utilization of nursing actions that can be directed at increasing a client’s level of health and well-being. Health Promotion Model Summary Although Pender’s HPM is simple to understand, it is complex in structure; it consists of numerous assumptions, propositions, and concepts. Summarily, an individual makes a decision based on personal factors and influences such as past experiences, biological, psychological, or sociocultural factors. These same factors also affect an individual’s ability to make health-related decisions. Additionally, an individual must also outweigh the barriers or costs of an action with the perceived benefits. One of the HPMs central concepts is perceived self-efficacy or the capability of one’s self toShow MoreRelatedHealth Promotion And Disease Prevention871 Words   |  4 PagesChronic disease is one of the leading causes of death. People get a chronic disease because of tobacco use, poor diet, lack of physical activities and host among others things. 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Why I Want a Wife †Introduction Free Essays

Why I Want a Wife – Introduction 2/This article was written in 1972. Does it still describe the role of most ‘wives’ today? If so, why has nothing changed? If not, how have things changed? In 1972, it was believed that a ‘good’ wife was a married woman who completed and satisfied all needs involving her housework, children and most importantly, her husband. A good wife was normally a house wife. We will write a custom essay sample on Why I Want a Wife – Introduction or any similar topic only for you Order Now Now, fast forward to 2012 forty years to the present – the general customs and expectations still stand, but many wives nowadays have lives, essentially. Back in the 70’s, most married women were housewives. Many wives stayed home to care for their housework, children, and husband. Their duties revolved around those three ideas. But as time passed, traditions have changed. Most women have jobs and hardly considered housewives. Sure, they will tend to their kids and spouse but many of them now have lives. Instead of being of the housework being a priority, the real work replaces it. Another weighing factor would be women’s rights. Instead of the husband viewed as the main bread maker, some wives have stepped up to plate with a higher salary. Back then, the male worked and the wife stayed home, therefore the male would earn the income. The last contributing factor to the change in modern day wife roles is the later marriage. People are marrying later leading to having children at an older age. By this point, the females would have had time to peak at their jobs and remain a steady pace when the child is brought into the world. Not as many sacrifices has to be made for the child oppose to giving birth at a younger age. Even though the role of wives has come a long way since the early 70’s, the general outline still remains: care for the husband and kids and to maintain the house. And though many adjustments have been made the credentials in order to become a good wife is still near, impossible to reach. Related article: â€Å"My Ideal Wife† How to cite Why I Want a Wife – Introduction, Essay examples

Kingdom of Benin Essay Example For Students

Kingdom of Benin Essay annonBenin was an influential city-state in northwest Africa generally from the15th to 17th century. It was founded by the Edo or Bini people in the 13thcentury, and by the early 14th century a royal court was in place. It wasalways ruled by a powerful king who was usually a former war leader. Thekings, however, later became a more religious figure. The kingdom has beenthough to extend throughout what is presently southern Nigeria. One of its most successful kings was Ozoula. During his reign, from about1480 to 1504, Benin established many commercial and diplomatic relations withPortugal. The kingdom participated in a lot of trade with Europe. Some ofthe goods they traded included palm oil, ivory, pepper, and textiles. Anotherindustry Benin took place in was the slave trade. Mostly POWs and women weretraded, but in the early years, men of the tribe were also given away. Gradually, the power of the kingdom decreased as the 18th and 19th centuriespassed. Eventually, in 1897, the area was annexed to British Nigeria. Whiletribesmen still led the area, the real control was in the hands of theEuropeans. One of the richest arts that originated in Africa are some of the hand castbronzes that came out of the kingdom of Benin. These became known as theBenin Bronzes. The casting of brass was strictly a royal art and anyone foundcasting brass without royal permission was faced with execution. Whenever aking or a major figure died, a beautiful commemorative head was cast out ofbronze in his honor. These heads were displayed at shrines found allthroughout the royal palace. Also found in the royal palace were eight wall-sized bronze plaques. Each plaque depicted kings, chiefs, and great warriorsin battle. They each depict a different event in Benins history. Manythings including utensils and weapons have also been found, each hand castwith brass. As you can see, the Beninian people were very gifted in this fineart and it is one of the richest parts of their culture.